3. Surface patterns represent quantitative measurements that vary continuously across the landscape; there are no explicit. Boundaries (i.e. Patches are not delineated). Here the data, can be conceptualized as a, three-dimensional surface where. The measured value at each geographical location is represented by the height of the surface. A familiar example is a digital. Elevation model but any, quantitative measurement can be treated this way (e.g. Plant biomass soil nitrogen density of,,, Individuals). Surface pattern analysis in ecology has largely been focused on estimating and modeling.The spatial dependencies in the measured characteristic and a, variety of techniques exist for this purpose [3 18,,, 19 30].? Here the basic, question is, 'Are samples that are close together also similar with respect to the measured variable?'
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