Plant growth and development is con

Plant growth and development is controlled by many signaling molecules, the so-called plant hormones, but these are also sometimes signals for defense responses. In their natural environment plants have to cope with a plethora of different organisms by which they are challenged. They have therefore developed many resistance mechanisms, using different cues for the recognition of a diverse range of pathogens. As outlined by Mausz and Pohnert (2015) metabolic properties are relevant for the defense status not only for single cells but also for whole organisms. In many cases the defense response is induced, but on behalf of the fitness of the plant. This could be a dilemma, because the balance between defense and beneficial growth responses has to be maintained. Plant hormones can integrate the response to developmental and environmental cues and thus limit defense-associated fitness costs. Many plant hormones, especially those controlling plant growth responses, fit into this category (reviewed in Denancé et al., 2013), but here auxin will be taken as an example to explain the concept of “balance between benefit and pathogen”. In plant–pathogen interactions the term “race of arms” has been coined to describe the ongoing co-evolution of defense and colonization strategies between the two partners (Anderson et al., 2010). This term could also be adjusted for the growth promotion (for instance by nitrogen fixation, see Gresshoff et al., 2015) vs. defense responses. If the hormonal balance is on the plant's side, then the plant will “win the race”, but when the pathogen can turn the hormonal system to its own advantage, the pathogen is the “winner”. The pathways to be regulated by hormones include direct defense pathways, nutritional aspects, but also cell wall maintenance (reviewed in López et al., 2008).

Auxins play many different roles in plant growth and development (Davies, 2010). On the cellular levels they are involved in the regulation of cell division, cell expansion, cell differentiation and polarity. On the whole plant levels they also contribute to organ development, such as roots (lateral and adventitious), shoots (i.e. apical dominance), leaves, as well as flower organs and fruits. They are also involved in vascular patterning and orientation in the environment (e.g. gravi- and phototropism). These examples indicate their roles in all major developmental processes of a plant. Auxins are also involved in the regulation of changes in different growth processes associated with pathogens and symbionts. While pathogens can alter the auxin response to induce specific disease symptoms during disease development, beneficial microorganisms interfere with the auxin metabolism of the host plant to induce plant growth for their own benefit (for review see Ludwig-Müller, 2014).

Even though auxin has long been recognized as a regulator of plant defense, the molecular mechanisms involved have been only recently taken under investigation. Similar to the signaling pathways of the defense-associated compounds salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA), auxin signaling differentially affects resistance to various pathogen groups (reviewed in Kazan and Manners, 2009). Recent evidence suggested that the auxin and SA pathways act antagonistically during plant defense reactions, whereas auxin and jasmonate pathways have many similarities regarding plant defense responses (Kazan and Manners, 2009). Auxin may also affect disease outcomes indirectly through effects on plant development (Gil et al., 2001). The evolutionary reasons behind the antagonistic interactions between SA and auxin might be that plants divert limited resources to defense-related processes at the expense of plant growth when attacked by a pathogen (Kazan and Manners, 2009). The growth of plants is dependent on energy, mainly from photosynthesis and respiration. SA-mediated induction of PR (pathogenesis related) proteins was dependent on the presence of intact photoreceptors, linking light to defense (Karpinski et al., 2003). A connection between SA and photosynthesis is the protein isochorismate synthase, which is involved in SA synthesis, but also in the synthesis of phylloquinone, which is incorporated into photosystem I (Szechynska-Hebda and Karpinski, 2013). An excess excitation energy has similar effects on the expression of nuclear genes involved systemic acquired acclimation and systemic acquired resistance, which are both tightly linked to programmed cell death (reviewed in Szechynska-Hebda and Karpinski, 2013). However, recently we have shown that auxin and SA systemically co-increased during infection of Arabidopsis thaliana with Cucumber mosaic virus ( Likić et al., 2014), so that not in all cases an antagonism of auxin and SA can be anticipated.

When talking about “auxin” the major compounds in plants, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is usually meant, but there are some indole and other derivatives with auxin activity (Epstein and Ludwig-Müller, 1993, Ludwig-Müller, 2000 and Ludwig-Müller and Cohen, 2002). Also, only the free form of IAA and related compounds is considered to be active, the majority of auxin in a given tissue, however, is conjugated mainly to amino acids and sugars and thereby inactivated (Ludwig-Müller, 2011). Since IAA can be even growth inhibitory at high concentrations, the tight control of auxin homeostasis is essential. Here, several processes are important: (1) biosynthesis, (2) degradation, (3) reversible conjugation, and (4) transport, the latter includes long distance and cell-to-cell movement of auxin, leading to local auxin maxima or auxin gradients (e.g. Smith, 2008). These four main possibilities to control auxin concentrations in a given tissue are connected to transcriptional activation of auxin-inducible genes, which can be growth or defense related (Fig. 1). In the case of expansins the proteins can act in developmental responses, for example cell expansion, or in changing the penetration environment (cell wall) for pathogens.

ผลลัพธ์ (อังกฤษ) 2:

Plant growth and development is controlled by many signaling molecules, the so-called plant hormones, but these are also sometimes signals for defense responses. In their natural environment plants have to cope with a plethora of different organisms by which they are challenged. They have therefore developed many resistance mechanisms, using different cues for the recognition of a diverse range of pathogens. As outlined by Mausz and Pohnert (2015) metabolic properties are relevant for the defense status not only for single cells but also for whole organisms. In many cases the defense response is induced, but on behalf of the fitness of the plant. This could be a dilemma, because the balance between defense and beneficial growth responses has to be maintained. Plant hormones can integrate the response to developmental and environmental cues and thus limit defense-associated fitness costs. Many plant hormones, especially those controlling plant growth responses, fit into this category (reviewed in Denancé et al., 2013), but here auxin will be taken as an example to explain the concept of "balance between benefit and pathogen". In plant-pathogen interactions the term "race of arms" has been coined to describe the ongoing co-evolution of defense and colonization strategies between the two partners (Anderson et al., 2010). This term could also be adjusted for the growth promotion (for instance by nitrogen fixation, see Gresshoff et al., 2015) vs. defense responses. If the hormonal balance is on the plant's side, then the plant will "win the race", but when the pathogen can turn the hormonal system to its own advantage, the pathogen is the "winner". The pathways to be regulated by hormones include Direct defense pathways, Nutritional aspects, but also Cell Wall maintenance (reviewed in López et Al., 2008). Auxins Play many different roles in Plant growth and Development (Davies, 2010). On the cellular levels they are involved in the regulation of cell division, cell expansion, cell differentiation and polarity. On the whole plant levels they also contribute to organ development, such as roots (lateral and adventitious), shoots (ie apical dominance), leaves, as well as flower organs and fruits. They are also involved in vascular patterning and orientation in the environment (eg gravi- and phototropism). These examples indicate their roles in all major developmental processes of a plant. Auxins are also involved in the regulation of changes in different growth processes associated with pathogens and symbionts. While pathogens Can Alter the auxin Response to induce specific disease symptoms during disease Development, beneficial microorganisms Interferes with the auxin metabolism of the Host Plant to induce Plant growth for their own Benefit (for review See Ludwig-Müller, two thousand and fourteen). Even though auxin has. long been recognized as a regulator of plant defense, the molecular mechanisms involved have been only recently taken under investigation. Similar to the signaling pathways of the defense-associated compounds salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA), auxin signaling differentially affects resistance to various pathogen groups (reviewed in Kazan and Manners, 2009). Recent evidence suggested that the auxin and SA pathways act antagonistically during plant defense reactions, whereas auxin and jasmonate pathways have many similarities regarding plant defense responses (Kazan and Manners, 2009). Auxin may also affect disease outcomes indirectly through effects on plant development (Gil et al., 2001). The evolutionary reasons behind the antagonistic interactions between SA and auxin might be that plants divert limited resources to defense-related processes at the expense of plant growth when attacked by a pathogen (Kazan and Manners, 2009). The growth of plants is dependent on energy, mainly from photosynthesis and respiration. SA-mediated induction of PR (pathogenesis related) proteins was dependent on the presence of intact photoreceptors, linking light to defense (Karpinski et al., 2003). A connection between SA and photosynthesis is the protein isochorismate synthase, which is involved in SA synthesis, but also in the synthesis of phylloquinone, which is incorporated into photosystem I (Szechynska-Hebda and Karpinski, 2013). An excess excitation energy has similar effects on the expression of nuclear genes involved systemic acquired acclimation and systemic acquired resistance, which are both tightly linked to programmed cell death (reviewed in Szechynska-Hebda and Karpinski, 2013). However, recently we have shown that auxin and SA Systemically co-Increased during infection of Arabidopsis thaliana with Cucumber Mosaic Virus (Likić et Al., In 2014), so that not in all Cases an antagonism of auxin and SA Can be anticipated. When talking. about "auxin" the major compounds in plants, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is usually meant, but there are some indole and other derivatives with auxin activity (Epstein and Ludwig-Müller, 1993, Ludwig-Müller, 2000 and Ludwig. -Müller and Cohen, 2002). Also, only the free form of IAA and related compounds is considered to be active, the majority of auxin in a given tissue, however, is conjugated mainly to amino acids and sugars and thereby inactivated (Ludwig-Müller, 2011). Since IAA can be even growth inhibitory at high concentrations, the tight control of auxin homeostasis is essential. Here, several processes are important: (1) biosynthesis, (2) degradation, (3) reversible conjugation, and (4) transport, the latter includes long distance and cell-to-cell movement of auxin, leading to local auxin maxima or. auxin gradients (eg Smith, 2008). These four main possibilities to control auxin concentrations in a given tissue are connected to transcriptional activation of auxin-inducible genes, which can be growth or defense related (Fig. 1). In the case of expansins the proteins can act in developmental responses, for example cell expansion, or in changing the penetration environment (cell wall) for pathogens.

ผลลัพธ์ (อังกฤษ) 3:

Plant growth and development is controlled by many signaling molecules the so-called, plant hormones but these, are also. Sometimes signals for defense responses. In their natural environment plants have to cope with a plethora of different organisms. By which they are challenged. They have therefore developed many, resistance mechanismsUsing different cues for the recognition of a diverse range of pathogens. As outlined by Mausz and Pohnert (2015 metabolic.) Properties are relevant for the defense status not only for single cells but also for whole organisms. In many cases the. Defense response is induced but on, behalf of the fitness of the plant. This could be, a dilemmaBecause the balance between defense and beneficial growth responses has to be maintained. Plant hormones can integrate. The response to developmental and environmental cues and thus limit defense-associated fitness costs. Many, plant hormones. Especially those controlling plant, growth responses fit into this category (reviewed in Denanc é et al, 2013),But here auxin will be taken as an example to explain the concept of "balance between benefit and pathogen". In plant - pathogen. Interactions the term "race of arms." has been coined to describe the ongoing co-evolution of defense and colonization strategies. Between the two partners (Anderson et al, 2010).This term could also be adjusted for the growth promotion (for instance by, nitrogen fixation see Gresshoff et al, 2015). Vs. Defense responses. If the hormonal balance is on the plant 's side then the, plant will "win the race", but when the. Pathogen can turn the hormonal system to its, own advantage the pathogen is the "winner".The pathways to be regulated by hormones include direct pathways defense, aspects nutritional, also but cell wall maintenance. (reviewed in L is PEZ et al, 2008).

Auxins play many different roles in plant growth and, development (Davies 2010). On the. Cellular levels they are involved in the regulation of cell, expansion division cell, differentiation cell and polarity.On the whole plant levels they also contribute to, organ development such as roots (lateral and adventitious), shoots (i.e.? Apical dominance), leaves as well, as flower organs and fruits. They are also involved in vascular patterning and orientation. In the environment (e.g. Gravi - and phototropism). These examples indicate their roles in all major developmental processes. Of a plant.Auxins are also involved in the regulation of changes in different growth processes associated with pathogens and, symbionts. While pathogens can alter the auxin response to induce specific disease symptoms during, disease development beneficial. Microorganisms interfere with the auxin metabolism of the host plant to induce plant growth for their own benefit (for review. See Ludwig-M V, ller 2014).

.Even though auxin has long been recognized as a regulator of plant defense the molecular, mechanisms involved have been. Only recently taken under investigation. Similar to the signaling pathways of the defense - associated compounds salicylic. Acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA), auxin signaling differentially affects resistance to various pathogen groups (reviewed. In Kazan, and Manners 2009).Recent evidence suggested that the auxin and SA pathways act antagonistically during plant defense reactions whereas auxin,, And jasmonate pathways have many similarities regarding plant defense responses (Kazan, and Manners 2009). Auxin may also. Affect disease outcomes indirectly through effects on plant development (Gil et al, 2001).The evolutionary reasons behind the antagonistic interactions between SA and auxin might be that plants divert limited. Resources to defense-related processes at the expense of plant growth when attacked by a pathogen (Kazan and Manners 2009,,). The growth of plants is dependent on energy mainly from, photosynthesis and respiration.SA-mediated induction of PR (pathogenesis related) proteins was dependent on the presence of, intact photoreceptors linking. Light to defense (Karpinski et al, 2003). A connection between SA and photosynthesis is the protein, isochorismate synthase. Which is involved in, SA synthesis but also in the synthesis, of phylloquinoneWhich is incorporated into photosystem I (Szechynska-Hebda, and Karpinski 2013). An excess excitation energy has similar. Effects on the expression of nuclear genes involved systemic acquired acclimation and systemic, acquired resistance which. Are both tightly linked to programmed cell death (reviewed in Szechynska-Hebda and Karpinski 2013). However,,Recently we have shown that auxin and SA systemically co-increased during infection of Arabidopsis thaliana with Cucumber. Mosaic virus (Liki ć et al, 2014), so that not in all cases an antagonism of auxin and SA can be anticipated.

When talking. About "auxin." the major compounds, in plants indole-3 - acetic acid (IAA), is usually meantBut there are some indole and other derivatives with auxin activity (Epstein and Ludwig-M V, V, ller 1993 Ludwig-M ller 2000 and,, Ludwig-M V, ller and Cohen 2002). Also only the, free form of IAA and related compounds is considered to be active the majority,, Of auxin in a, given tissue however is conjugated, mainly to amino acids and sugars and thereby inactivated (Ludwig-M V, ller. 2011).Since IAA can be even growth inhibitory at, high concentrations the tight control of auxin homeostasis is essential, Here,. Several processes are important: (1) biosynthesis, (2) degradation, (3), reversible conjugation and (4), transport the latter. Includes long distance and cell-to-cell movement of auxin leading to, local auxin maxima or auxin gradients (e.g, Smith,. 2008).These four main possibilities to control auxin concentrations in a given tissue are connected to transcriptional activation. Of auxin-inducible genes which can, be growth or defense related (Fig. 1). In the case of expansins the proteins can act. In, developmental responses for example cell expansion or in, changing the penetration environment (cell wall) for pathogens.